TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS ON ABSTINENCE AND LIFE SKILLS PROGRAMMES FOR TEENAGE PREGNANCY MITIGATION IN NANDI NORTH, KENYA
Abstract
Purpose of the study. The study aimed to establish teachers’ perceptions of two selected mitigation measures, namely the sexual abstinence program and life skills education regarding teenage pregnancy in public primary schools in Nandi North Sub-County, Nandi County, Kenya.
Problem Statement. Teenage pregnancy remains a concern in Kenya and around the world. Mitigation measures have been adopted to curb this problem, including policies and programmes that governments establish to address teenage pregnancy. The success of such measures depends largely on teachers who interact with them daily.
Methodology. The study was grounded on the social learning theory. The target population was 1387 teachers, including 172 guidance and counselling teachers from 172 public primary schools in Nandi North Sub-County. A total of 24 guidance and counselling teachers were chosen from 172, representing 14%, using the rule of thumb for data saturation. A total of 301 teachers were selected from the six education zones by using the proportionate stratified random sampling method. Guidance and counselling teachers were selected using a purposive sampling method. A questionnaire for teachers and an interview schedule for guidance and counselling teachers were used to collect data.
Results. The study established that teachers had positive perceptions of selected mitigation measures on teenage pregnancy in public primary schools in Nandi North Sub-County as follows: sexual abstinence programmes (mean=3.92, standard deviation=1.12) and life skills education (mean=3.80, Std. dev=1.24).
Conclusion. Sexual abstinence programmes can help curb teenage pregnancies in Nandi Sub- County
Recommendation. The study recommends that schools integrate sexual abstinence programmes with comprehensive sex education, and include a life skills programme in the schools, to help address the problem of teenage pregnancy.
Key Words: Abstinence, Life skills, Mitigation measures, teenage pregnancy.
References
Agbor, V., Mbanga, C. M., & Njim, T. (2017). Adolescent deliveries in rural Cameroon: An 8-year trend, prevalence and adverse maternofoetal outcomes. Reproductive Health, 14(1), 1–8. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-017-0382-6
Andrade C. (2021). A student’s guide to the classification and operationalization of variables in the conceptualization and design of a clinical study: Part 1. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 43(2), 177–179. https://doi.org/10.1177/0253717621994334
Asmamaw, D. B., Tafere, T. Z., & Negash, W. D. (2023). Prevalence of teenage pregnancy and its associated factors in high fertility sub-Saharan Africa countries: A multilevel analysis. BMC Women’s Health, 23(1), 23.
Atuhaire, J., Nyakato, V. N & Murembe, C. N. (2023). Teaching sexuality education in secondary schools of Uganda and its implications: A qualitative assessment of the curriculum. Journal of Popular Education in Africa, 7(5), 31 – 47.
Azzopardi, P. et al. (2019). Progress in adolescent health and wellbeing: tracking 12 headline indicators for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2016. The Lancet, 393(10176), 1101-1118. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32427-9
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioural change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191. Retrieved from https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191
Bandura, A. (2021). Analysis of modelling processes. In Psychological modelling (pp. 1-62). Routledge.
Bandura, A. (2024). Social learning analysis of aggression. In Analysis of delinquency and aggression (pp. 203-232). Routledge.
Barriuso-Ortega, S., Fernandez-Hawrylak, M., & Heras-Sevilla, D. (2024). Sex education in adolescence: A systematic review of programmes and meta-analysis. Children and Youth Services Review, 166, 107926.
Bomester, O. (2021). The importance of sexuality education programmes for adolescents. Pan-African Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 2(2).
Brindis, C.D., Decker, M.J., Gutmann-Gonzalez, A. & Berglas, N.F. (2020). Perspectives on adolescent pregnancy prevention strategies in the United States: Looking back, looking forward. Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics, 11, 135 – 145.
Denwigwe, C., Okpechi, P., Asuquo, P., & Eze, A. (2018). Family influences on substance abuse tendency among secondary school students in Yakurr local government area of cross River State, Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International, 23(2), 1-6. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.9734/JPRI/2018/42708
Godana, G, Garoma, S, Ayers, N. & Abera, M. (2023) Effect of a school-linked life skills intervention on adolescents’ sexual and reproductive health skills in Guji zone, Ethiopia (CRT): A generalized linear model. Front. Public Health, 11, 1203376. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1203376
Gyan, S. E., Ahorlu, C., Dzorgbo, D.-B. S., & Fayorsey, C. K. (2017). Social capital and adolescent girls’ resilience to teenage pregnancy in Begoro, Ghana. Journal of Biosocial Science, 49(3), 334-347. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1017/S002193201600047X
Henry, N., Flynn, A., & Powell, A. (2018). Policing image-based sexual abuse: Stakeholder perspectives. Police Practice and Research, 19(6), 565-581. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2018.1507892
Ivanova, O., Rai, M., Mlahagwa, W., Tumuhairwe, J., Bakuli, A., Nyakato, V. N., & Kemigisha, E. (2019). A cross-sectional mixed-methods study of sexual and reproductive health knowledge, experiences and access to services among refugee adolescent girls in the Nakivale refugee settlement, Uganda. Reproductive Health, 16(1), 1-11. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-019-0698-5
Kalisa, F. (2021). Socio-economic factors associated with teenage pregnancy in Rwanda: A secondary analysis of Rwanda Demographic and Health Survey data from 2014-2015. Masters Project, Uppsala University.
Kamangu, AA. & Mbago, M.C.Y. (2024). Provision of sexual health education in secondary schools: A multidisciplinary lens of stakeholders in southern highlands, Tanzania. Heliyon, 10, e30846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30846
Kearney, M. S., & Levine, P. B. (2020). Role models, mentors, and media influences. The Future of Children, 30(1), 83-106.
Keya, R.S. (2023). Teachers’ perception of life skills education on moral behaviour of students in secondary schools in Emuhaya Sub County, Kenya. M.Ed. Thesis, Maseno University, Kenya.
KNBS (2023). Kenya demographic and health survey 2022. Nairobi, KNBS.
Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30(3), 607-610. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447003000308
Kwachi, B., Njiri, S., Mulyanga, S., Choge, I, Mwalimu, R.& Ontiri, S. (2023). Implementation of a multi-sectoral approach to address adolescent pregnancy: a case study of subnational advocacy informing national scale-up in Kenya. Glob Health Sci Pract., 11(5), e2200546. https://doi.org/10.9745/GHSP-D-22-00546.
Kyei-Arthur, F., Agyekum, M. W., & Kyei-Gyamfi, S. (2024). “You cannot stay with one person once you begin having sex at a young age”: the prevalence, correlates and effects of early sexual debut among children in Ghana. Reproductive health, 21(1), 38. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-024-01775-4.
Kyei-Arthur, F., Kyei-Gyamfi, S., Agyekum, M.W. et al. (2025). Understanding adolescent pregnancy in Ghana: prevalence, reactions, resolution and predictors. Discov Soc Sci Health 5, 47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44155-025-00195-4
Manguro, G. & Temmerman, M. (2022). A critical review of adolescent sexual and reproductive health and rights in Kenya. Med., 3(6), 364 – 368.
Miriti, J. M., & Mutua, M. N. (2019). Teenage pregnancy and girls’ education capabilities in Nzambani Ward Kitui County in Kenya: School and community perspective. International Journal of Gender Studies, 4(1), 59-84. Retrieved from https://www.iprjb.org/journals/index.php/IJGS/article/download/940/1050
Mocheche, P.C. (2018). Factors influencing implementation of sex education curricular in secondary schools in Kenya: A Case of Kabete Sub-County, Kiambu County. M.Ed. Project, University of Nairobi.
Mohamed, S., Chipeta, M. G., Kamninga, T., Nthakomwa, L., et al. (2023). Interventions to prevent unintended pregnancies among adolescents: a rapid overview of systematic reviews. Systematic reviews, 12(1), 198. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-023-02361-8
Musyimi, C. W., Mutiso, V. N., Nyamai, D. N., Ebuenyi, I., & Ndetei, D. M. (2020). Suicidal behaviour risks during teenage pregnancy in a low-resource setting: A qualitative study. PLoS One, 15(7), e0236269. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236269
Musyoka, J. M., Cheloti, S. K., & Kasivu, G. M. (2024). Life skills education; investigating its relationship with teenage pregnancy in public secondary schools in Kenya. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 8(5), 1647-1659.
Muthima, K. M., Kiptiony, G., & Kay, J. (2022). Investigating the role of local community in preventing teenage girls’ pregnancy in Nyandarua North Sub-County, Kenya. Editon Cons. J. Psychol. Guid. Couns. 3(1), 259-265. https://doi.org/10.51317/ecjpgc.v4i1.333
Ng’ang’a C. W. (2021). Effectiveness of the school based mechanisms in preventing teenage pregnancy in secondary schools in Kilifi County, Kenya. M.Ed. Project, Kenyatta University, Kenya.
Njenga, R. N. (2019). The significance of secondary school life skills education in addressing the students’ sexual and reproductive health information needs and knowledge gaps in Ruiru Sub-County, Kenya. Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi.
Nkata, H., Marques, S. C., Nyamhanga, T., & Barros, H. (2021). Perceptions of secondary school teachers towards school expulsion of pregnant adolescents at Igunga District, Tanzania—a qualitative study. Porto Biomedical Journal, 6(5), e141.
Oduor, M. (2020, June 17). Close to 4,000 school girls impregnated in Kenya during Covid-19 lockdown. Africa News. Retrieved from https://www.africanews.com/2020/06/17/close-to-4000-school-girls-impregnated-in-kenya-during-covid-19-lockdown/
OHCHR (2022). Status of teenage pregnancy per county 2016-2020: Number of adolescents presenting with pregnancy at first antenatal clinic. Retrieved online from https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2022-05/kenya_annex.pdf
Okoli, C.I., Hajizadeh, M., Rahman, M.M., Velayutham, E. & Khanam, R. (2022). Socioeconomic inequalities in teenage pregnancy in Nigeria: evidence from Demographic Health Survey MC Public Health, 22, 1729. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14146-0.
Olenja, J., Krugu, J.K., Kwaak, V.D. A., Kawai, D., Karanja, S., Apanja, M., et al., (2020). Factors influencing teenage pregnancy among Maasai girls in Kajiado West Sub-County, Kenya. An operational qualitative study report as part of the YES I DO programme implemented from 2016 to 2020. Nairobi: KIT Royal Tropical Institute.
Paton, D., Bullivant, S., & Soto, J. (2020). The impact of sex education mandates on teenage pregnancy: International evidence. Health Economics, 29(7), 790-807.
Shibeshi, A. H., Seifu, B. L., Kase, B. F., Asebe, H. A., Tebeje, T. M., Asgedom, Y. S., ... & Mare, K. U. (2024). Teenage pregnancy and its associated factors in Kenya: a multilevel logistic regression analysis based on the recent 2022 Kenyan demographic and health survey. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 29(1), 2401531.
Shirao, B; Momanyi, M & Anyona, J. (2020). Implementation of Life Skills Education towards Curbing Teenage Pregnancy in Public Secondary Schools in Makadara Sub County, Nairobi, Kenya. Journal of Popular Education in Africa, 4(10), 92 -111.
Singla, D. R., Waqas, A., Hamdani, S. U., Suleman, N., Zafar, S. W., Saeed, K., ... & Teenage stage, A. (2020). Implementation and effectiveness of adolescent life skills programmes in low-and middle-income countries: A critical review and meta-analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 130, 103402.
Thelma, C. C., Patrick, M., Sain, Z. H., Phiri, E. V., Madoda, D., & Akpan, W. M. (2024). Sexuality education: A tool to reducing teenage pregnancy rates. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 23(2), 491-501.
Tull, K. (2020). Consequences for teenagers when they become pregnant, and become mothers. K4D Helpdesk Report 882. Brighton, UK: Institute of Development Studies. Retrieved from https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/handle/20.500.12413/15727
Turvey, J., McKay, D., Kaur, S. T., Castree, N., Chang, S., & Lim, M. S. C. (2024). Exploring the Feasibility and Acceptability of Technological Interventions to Prevent Adolescents’ Exposure to Online Pornography: Qualitative Research. JMIR Paediatrics and Parenting, 7, e58684. https://doi.org/10.2196/58684
UNAIDS (2025). Fact sheet 2025: Global HIV statistics. Retrieved online from https://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/2025-07/2025_Global_HIV_Factsheet_en.pdf
UNESCO (2025). Review of the evidence on sexuality education. Report to inform the update of the UNESCO International Technical Guidance on Sexuality Education. prepared by Paul Montgomery and Wendy Knerr, University of Oxford Centre for evidence-based intervention. Paris: UNESCO.
UNFPA (2017). Teenage pregnancy and Development. UNFPA.
UNICEF (2024). Early childbearing. Retrieved online from https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-health/early-childbearing/
Waddell, K. (2024). Examining parenting styles and dimensions as predictors for adolescents’ perceived life satisfaction as adults. Doctoral dissertation, Liberty University.
Wado, Y. D., Sully, E. A., & Mumah, J. N. (2019). Pregnancy and early motherhood among adolescents in five East African countries: a multi-level analysis of risk and protective factors. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 19(1), 1-11.
Wastnedge, E. A., Reynolds, R. M., Van Boeckel, S. R., Stock, S. J., Denison, F. C., Maybin, J. A., & Critchley, H. O. (2021). Pregnancy and COVID-19. Physiological Reviews, 101(1), 303-318. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fphysrev.00003.2022
World Bank (2020). Tanzania Secondary Education Quality Improvement Program (SEQUIP). The World Bank. Retrieved from https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P170480
World Health Organisation (2024). Teenage pregnancy. Retrieved online from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-pregnancy
World Health Organisation. (2020). Ensuring universal health coverage delivers for women, children and teenagers: PMNCH 2019 annual report. Retrieved from https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/332477/9789240005747-eng.pdf
Yakubu, I., Garmaroudi, G., Sadeghi, R., Tol, A., Yekaninejad, M. S., & Yidana, A. (2019). Assessing the impact of an educational intervention program on sexual abstinence based on the health belief model amongst adolescent girls in Northern Ghana, a cluster randomised control trial. Reproductive health, 16, 1-12.
Zechuan, C., & Shuchang, Y. (2025). Albert Bandura. In The ECPH Encyclopedia of Psychology (pp. 54-55). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.
